The previous section has endeavoured to establish that spontaneous information flow within and between an organisation and its environment, that is essential for problem solving, is one of the main attributes that leads to a self-organised system. The effectiveness of the circulation of information and its outcome is dependent on the quality of the information. The authors recommend a method of thinking and problem solving that constitutes reflection, taking into account previous experience and actions of others (and includes stigmergy). In this section, it is argued that this approach of problem solving is ideal, and in fact necessary, in a self-organised system.
It is a common concept that, when a problem arises in an organisation, one or more groups of people are formed to improve organisational performance and establish a suitable problem solving approach. Where the self-organisational approach is adopted, one of the main advantages is the flexibility to adjust to any changes within the organisation and to the environment – the real world (Checkland, 1981) – and its capacity to explore, through reflection, ongoing changes according to the system’s requirement and up-to-date needs. Figure 9.4, “The integration of reflection into self-organised processes.” illustrates this important process. Self-organisation can be viewed as a basis for information systems development – it is flexible; a particular approach that adjusts to specific situations but is not necessarily information systems modelling nor planning. It is a spontaneous process organised by reflection, communication and analysis of socio-technical systems.
Self-organisation can also contribute to creating a conceptual framework for non-structural, self-evolving knowledge networks. To help organisations make decisions and solve problems in a collaborative way, these knowledge networks must be present and therefore be able to reflect and share required information. This also supports information systems by allowing the adequate development of communication channels, full participation across the organisation and interaction of individuals (i.e. actors) within and between systems and the environment.
The interaction of reflection and self-organisation will be discussed by viewing the decision-making process in an organisation as being on three levels, as illustrated in Figure 9.5, “Levels of decision making in self-organised systems.”.
The first level consists of individuals (referred to as ‘actors’ in the previous section) who may be faced with an unusual or complex situation, or have an idea or conjecture about improvements to the area in which they work. The second level is composed of a grouping or cluster of individuals who have a common purpose or problem. The third level represents the complete system or organisation, which needs to maintain the effectiveness of its performance.